Ancient Greek food
Meals
Terracotta model corresponds to a lion's paw tripod table, 2nd1st century BC, from Myrina, Louvre
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The Greeks had four meals a day. Breakfast (akratismos) consisted of barley bread dipped in wine (Akratos), sometimes complemented by figs and olives. A quick lunch (Ariston) was taken at about noon or early afternoon. Dinner (deipnon), the most important meal of the day was generally at nightfall recorded. An additional light meal (hesperisma) was sometimes recorded in the late afternoon. / Aristodeipnon, literally, lunch and dinner, " was served late in the afternoon instead of dinner.
Men and women took their meals separately. When the house was too small, the men ate first after the women. Slaves waited at dinner. Aristotle notes that "the poor, having no slaves, have their wives and children to use as servants."
The ancient Greeks Custom terracotta miniatures are their furniture in the children's burial place us a good idea of its style and design. The Greeks ate normally while on chairs sitting on benches were used for banquets. The tables, high and low for normal meals for banquets were initially rectangular in shape. But in the 4th Century BC, was the usual round table, often with animal legs (eg, lion paws). Loaves of bread could be used as plates, but terracotta bowls was more frequent. Dish has been refined over time and through the Roman period plates were sometimes made out of precious metals or glass. Cutlery was not often used at the table: The fork was unknown, was eaten with the fingers. Knives were used to cut the meat. Spoons were used for soups and broths. Pieces of bread (apomagdalia) could be used to be the food or as a napkin to wipe your fingers spoon.
Social Dining
Banquete Kottabos play, a playful subversion the donation, about 510 BC, Louvre
As with modern dinner parties, the hosts could simply invite friends and family, but two other forms of social dining room were First in the Ancient Greece: the maintenance of the all-male Symposium and the obligatory, syssitia Regiment.
Symposium
Main article: Symposium
The symposium (Symposium), traditionally a "banquet", but more literally, "meeting of the drinkers' was translated, one of the favorite pastimes for the Greeks. It consisted of two parts: the first is dedicated to food, generally quite simple, and a second part is devoted to drink. However, the wine was consumed in the diet, and the drinks were accompanied by snacks (tragmata) such as chestnuts, beans, roasted wheat, honey and cakes, all designed to absorb alcohol and extend the drinking session.
The second part was initiated with a donation, most often followed in honor of Dionysus, of entertainment, table games, such Kottabos. The guests would on sofas (Kline) sit back, low tables instead of food or game boards. entertain dancers, acrobats and musicians, the rich would banqueters. A King the banquet was lost, he had the task of directing the slaves, how much to mix the wine.
With the exception of the dancing girls and courtesans, the banquet was only reserved for men. It was an essential element of Greek social life. Large parties may be granted only by the rich, in most Greek Households, religious festivals or family celebrations were modest at the banquets. The banquet was the setting of a specific genre of literature, the birth of Plato Symposium, Xenophon work with the same name, the table talk of Plutarch's Moralia and Deipnosophists (dining rooms of the learned) of Athenaeus.
Syssitia
Main article: Syssitia
The syssitia (ta syssitia) meals would be authentic by social or religious groups for men and young people, especially in Crete and Sparta shared. They have been variously described as hetairia, pheiditia or Andreia (literally, "belonging to companies for men"). Both served as a kind of aristocratic Association and as a military chaos. As the symposium was the syssitia the exclusive domain of men, although some references were found on all women syssitia. Unlike to the symposium, these meals were marked by simplicity and frugality.
Foods
Bread
Woman kneading bread, c. 500 475 BCE, National Archaeological Museum Athens
Cereals were the main food. The two main grains of wheat (SITOS) and barley. Wheat grains were softened by soaking, then either the reduced Gruel, or ground into flour (aleiata) and kneaded and shaped loaves (Artos) or pita bread, either plain or mixed with cheese or honey. Leaven was known, the Greeks later used an alkali (Nitron) or wine yeast as a leavening agent. Dough breads were baked at home in the clay oven (ipnos) placed on the legs. A simpler method was in it, burning coals on the ground and cover the pile with a dome-shaped cover (pnigeus) when it was hot enough, the coals were swept aside, bread dough were placed on the warm ground, the lid was replaced and the coals were gathered on the side of the lid. The stone oven appear until the Roman period. Solon, an Athenian legislator of the 6th Century BC, prescribed that sourdough bread reserved for feast days. By the end of the 5th Century BC, sourdough bread on the market sold, although it was expensive.
Barley was easier to produce but difficult to make bread. It provided a nourishing but very hard bread. For this reason, it was often roasted, before milling, producing a coarse flour (alphita) for Maza, to make the basic Greek court was. In Peace, Aristophanes employs the term, literally "To eat only barley, with a meaning equivalent to the English word" diet of bread and water ". Many recipes for maza are known, it could served cooked or raw as a broth or produced in dumplings or fried bread. Such as wheat breads, it could also be supplemented with cheese or honey.
Fruit and Vegetables
The grain was often served accompanied by what was commonly referred to as opsonic "Relish." The word originally meant anything cooked on the fire; and by extension, all that bread. In the classical period came to refer to fish and vegetables: cabbage, onions, lentils, peas, chickpeas, beans, peas, grass, Peas, etc. They were eaten as a soup, boiled or mashed (Etnos), seasoned with olive oil, vinegar, herbs or gron, a fish sauce similar to Vietnamese n m. According to Aristophanes, mashed beans were a favorite dish of Heracles, always represented as a glutton in comedies. Poor families ate acorns (balanoi) .. Raw or preserved olives were a common appetizer.
In the cities, fresh vegetables were expensive: the poorer city residents had to deal with dried vegetables. Lentil soup (Phak) was the typical workers' court. Cheese, garlic and onions were the soldiers of traditional cuisine. In peace, the smell of onions is typically soldier Choir celebrate the end of the war, sings Oh! Joy, joy! Helm no more, no more cheese nor onions! Bitter vetch was seen as a famine food.
Fruit, fresh or dried, and nuts were eaten as a dessert. Important fruits were figs, raisins and pomegranates. Dried figs have been drinking as an aperitif or wine, if eaten. In the latter case, they were often accompanied by roasted chestnuts, chick peas and beechnuts.
Fish and meat
Victims, the main source of meat for city dwellers Here's a wild boar, Tondo from an Attic kylix by the Painter Epidromos, c. 510 500 BC, Louvre
Consumption of fish and meat in accordance with the richness and Location of the house are varied, allowed in the country, hunting (mainly trapping) for the consumption of birds and hares. Farmers also had farms in order to chickens and geese . Give Something rich landowners could raise goats, pigs, sheep or. Meat was expensive in the city except pork. cost in Aristophanes' day a pig three Drachmas, which was three days wages for public servants. Sausages were common to both the poor and the rich.
In the 8th Century BC, Hesiod describes the ideal country festival in Works and Days:
But then I let a shady rocks and Bibline wine, a clot of curds and milk of drained goats with the flesh of the Cow out in the forest that has never calved, and the beginning of children, then let me drink wine light
Meat is much less prominent in the texts of the 5th Century from BC than in the earliest poems, but this may be a question of the genre, rather than real evidence of changes in agriculture and food customs. The consumption of fresh meat was of a religious ritual in which the gods burned share (fat and bone), while the human share (meat) was grilled and the Participant was accompanied, however, there was a lively trade in cooked and salted meat, which requires no ritual.
Spartans in the first place was eating soup with pork, the "black liquor" (ZMOS melas). According to Plutarch, it was "so highly valued that the elderly men only, that supplied so that what There was meat for the younger set. "It was known to the Greeks." Of course, the Spartans are the bravest men in the world, "joked a glutton "Everyone would die in his own way rather than ten thousand times his share to take on such a sorry nutrition. It was with pork, salt, vinegar and blood. The Dish was served with figs and cheese maza sometimes supplemented with wild game and fish. The 2nd3rd century author Aelian claims that Spartan chefs from cooking anything other than meat were prohibited.
In the Greek islands and along the coast, fresh fish and seafood (squid, octopus, and crustaceans) were common. They were on site but eaten more often transported inland. Sardines and anchovies were normal rate for the citizens of Athens. They were sometimes sold fresh, but more often salted. A stele the late 3rd Century BC from the small Boeotian town on Lake Akraiphia Copais provides us with a list of fish prices. The cheapest was Skaren (probably parrot fish), while in the north of bluefin tuna was three times as expensive. Common salt water fish were yellow-fin tuna, red mullet, skate, swordfish and sturgeon, a delicacy that ate was salted. Lake Copais itself was famous throughout Greece for its eels, celebrated by the heroes of the Acharnians. Other freshwater fish were pike-fish, carp and Wels less appreciated.
Eggs and dairy products
Greeks bred quails and chickens, sometimes for their eggs. Some authors also praise pheasant eggs and Egyptian Goose eggs, which were probably rare. The eggs were cooked soft or hard-boiled as an hors d'oeuvre or dessert. Egg whites, egg yolks and whole eggs as ingredients on the production of food uses.
Animals drank milk (gala), but it was rarely used for cooking. Butter (bouturon) was known but rarely used either: Greeks saw it as a culinary feature of the Thracians from the northern Aegean coast, the Middle Comic poet Anaxandrides "butter-eaters" means. But Greeks enjoyed other dairy products. Pyriat was a kind of sour milk, yogurt generally considered wrong. Especially goats and sheep () TYROS) was a staple food. Fresh and hard cheeses were sold in various stores, the former about two-thirds of its cost price. Cheese was eaten alone or with honey or vegetables. It was also as an ingredient for the Preparation of many dishes, including fish used. The only surviving recipe from the Sicilian chef Mithaecus is "tainia: good, discard the head, rinse and filet;. Add cheese and olive oil "However, it appears the addition of cheese have been a controversial issue; Archestratus warns his readers that Syracusan Cooks spoil good fish by the addition of cheese.
Food
Attic rhyton, c. 460 450 BC, National Archaeological Museum of Athens
The most popular drink was water. Getting water was a daily task for women. Although wells were common, spring water was preferred: it was as nutritious recognized because they grow plants and trees, and also as a desirable beverage causes. Pindar called spring water "as pleasant as honey". The Greeks would water to be robust, heavy or light, dry, sour, describe sharp, winy, etc. One of the playwright's characters Antiphanes claimed that he could taste water from the Attic alone recognize. Athenaeus says that a number of philosophers had a reputation for drinking nothing but water, a habit, combined with a vegetarian diet (see below). Milk, usually goats milk, was also consumed.
The usual drinking vessel was the skyphos, made of wood, clay or metal. Critias also mentioned the kothon, a Spartan cup to hide the military advantage of the color of the water from view and trapping mud in its edge had. They also have a drinking vessel called Kylix (a flat footed bowl), and for banquets of Kantharos (a deep dish with handles) or rhyton, a drinking horn often in the form of a human or animal Shaped head.
Wine
See also: Ancient Greece and wine
Banquete achieved in a crater with a oenochoe his Kylix fill with wine, about 490 480 v. BC, Louvre
The Greeks are thought to have red and white wines and ros made. Since at the present time, many qualities of the production were found in the common table wine vintage quality. The best wines in the general opinion came from Thsos, Lesbos and Chios. Cretan wine made later. A secondary wine from water and made pomace (the residue of pressed grapes), mixed with lees, was compatriots for their own use. The Greeks sometimes sweetened their wine with honey Wine and drugs by thyme, mint and other herbs. By the first century, if not before, they were familiar with wine with pine resin (modern Retsina) flavored. Aelian mentions a wine mixed with perfume. Boiled wine was known, and a sweet wine from Thsos, like port wine.
Wine was in the Usually cut with water. Drinking akraton or "pure wine," although it is known, can be practiced by the northern barbarians'm probably in the madness and cause death. Wine was mixed in would fill a crater from which the slaves of the drinker's Kylix with a oinochoe (pitchers). Wine was also used as generic Drugs used, taken to have medicinal virtues. Aelian mentions that the wine from Heraia in Arcadia rendered stupid men, but women fertile, vice versa Achaean Wine was thought to induce abortion. Outside of these purposes, the Greek society is not cheap women drink wine, according to Aelian, forbade a Massalian Law this is limited and women to drinking water. Sparta was the only city where women regularly drank wine.
Wine reserved for local use was kept in skins. This was intended to be sold poured into pithoi, (large terracotta jars). From here they were in amphorae sealed with pitch decanted for retail sale. Wines made Stamps from the producers and / or city judges guarantees their origin. This is one of the first cases the indication of geographical origin or quality of a product, and is the basis of modern Appellations d'Origine certification contrl.
Kykeon
Hecamede Kykeon preparation for Nestor, Kylix by the Painter Brygos, 490 v. BC, Louvre
The Greeks also drank Kykeon (of kyka "to shake to shuffle"), which was both a drink and a meal. It was a mash of barley, the water and herbs added. In the Iliad, in the drink also contained grated cheese. In the Odyssey, Circe added to honey, and a magic potion. In the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, the goddess refuses but takes a Kykeon red wine from water, flour and mint. Used as a ritual drink in the mysteries of Eleusis, it was also a popular Drink, especially in the countryside: Theophrastus, in his characters describes as a boorish peasant with a lot of drunk Kykeon and harass the meeting with his bad Breath. He also had a reputation as a good digestion, and as such, in peace, Hermes recommends it, the main character who has eaten too much dried fruit.
Food preparation
Eating played an important role in the Greek way of thinking. Classicist John Wilkins notes that distinction "in the Odyssey, for example, good men from the bathroom and Greeks from foreigners partly in terms of how and what they ate. Herodotus identified persons of partly in the form of food and nutrition ".
Until the 3rd Century BC, the economy by the physical and climatic conditions of the country, was imposed as held virtuous. The Greeks do not ignore the pleasures of eating, but valued simplicity. The Rural writer Hesiod, as quoted above, spoke of his "meat from the cow out in the forest that has never calved, and the beginning of children" as the perfect end to a day. Nevertheless, Chrysippus is by saying that the best meal was a free quote.
Culinary and gastronomic research was a sign Oriental laxity rejected: the Persian Empire was considered decadent because of its luxurious taste that manifests itself in her kitchen. The Greek Authors in favor with the description of the table of the Achaemenid Great King and his court: Herodotus, Clearchus of solos, Strabo and Ctesias agreed in their descriptions.
Fresh fish, one of the most popular dishes of the Greeks, plates with red numbers, c. 350 325 BC, Louvre
In contrast, Greeks as a whole emphasized the severity of their own Nutrition. Plutarch tells how the king of Pontus, eager, the Spartans' black gruel "try to cook bought a laconic," but had barely tasted it than he found it very poor, says to watch the cook him, "Lord, make this soup taste, you should first bathe in the river Evrotas have ".." After Polyaenus based on the discovery of the dining room of the Persian king's palace, Alexander the Great mocked their taste and made them for their Defeat. Pausanias, on the discovery of the eating habits of the Persian commander Mardonius, as the Persians, who with so much to the Greeks of their miserable living conditions rob was "ridiculed.
In consequence of this cult of the economy and the diminished light cuisine is inspired, the kitchen was long the domain of women, free or enslaved. In the classical period, however, began culinary specialists to the written record in power. Both Aelian and Athenaeus mention of the thousands of cooks, Smindyride of the Sybaris accompanied on his trip to Athens at the time of Cleisthenes, albeit disapprovingly. Plato in the Gorgias, mentions "Thearion the cook, the Mithaecus Author of a treatise on the Sicilian cuisine and the wine merchant Sarambos;. three eminent expert on the cake, food and wine "Some chefs also wrote essays a kitchen.
Over time more and more Greeks presented themselves as connoisseurs. From the Hellenistic to Roman times, not the Greeks, at least the rich everything seemed to be no more stringent than others. The cultured guests of the festival organized by Athenaeus in the second or 3 Century devoted a large part of the conversation, wine and gastronomy. They discussed the merits of various wines, vegetables and meat, in which famous food (stuffed squid, red tuna belly, shrimp, Salad washed down with mead) and great chefs like Soterides, Cook, King of Bithynia Nicomedes I (who reigned from the 279-250 BC). When his master inland, longed He anchovy; simulated Soterides they carefully carved turnips, oil, salt and poppy seeds. Suidas (an encyclopedia of the Byzantine period) incorrectly attributes this to the famous Roman gourmet Apicius (1st century BC) 89], as proof that the Greeks had the same level achieved may be taken how the Romans exploited.
Special diets
Vegetarianism
Triptolemos received wheat sheaves from Demeter and blessings from Persephone, 5th Century BC relief, National Archaeological Museum of Athens
Orphicism and Pythagoreanism, two common ancient Greek religions proposed to live a different kind, based on a concept the purity and therefore purification (catharsis) is a form of asceticism in the original sense asksis originally means a ritual, then to live a certain way. Vegetarianism was a central element of Orphicism and several variants Pythagoreanism.
Empedocles (5th century BC) founded vegetarianism by a belief in the transmigration of souls: who could Guarantee that an animal be slaughtered not house the soul of a people? It may, however, found that Empedocles also included plants in this reincarnation, So the same logic should have applied them to eat. Vegetarianism was also a result of aversion to the killing: "For Orpheus has taught us, rites to kill, and chorus.
The information of Pythagoras (6th century BC) is difficult to define. The Comedic authors such as Alexis and Aristophon Pythagoreans described as strictly vegetarian, with some of them live on bread and water alone. Others contented themselves with traditions prohibiting the consumption of certain vegetables, such as the bean or the sacred animals like the white tail or selected parts of animals.
It follows that vegetarianism and the idea of ascetic purity were closely linked, and often accompanied by sexual abstinence. On the consumption of meat, Plutarch (1st2nd century) went to the barbarism of the shed blood, inverting the usual terms of the debate, he asked the meat-eaters for its decision justified.
The Neoplatonic Porphyry (3rd century) employees in abstinence vegetarianism with the Cretan mystery cults and gives a count of the past, vegetarians, starting with the semi-mythical Epimenides. For him, the source of vegetarianism Demeter gift of wheat to Triptolemos, so he taught agriculture to mankind. His three commandments were: "Honor your parents," "honor the gods with fruits" and pare the animals. "
Athlete Diets
Aelian claims that the first athlete to file a formal diet was Ikkos of Tarentum, a winner in the Olympic pentathlon (perhaps in 444 BC). However, Olympic wrestling champion (62 to 66 Olympics) Milo of Croton was already said to twenty pounds of meat-and-twenty pounds of bread to eat and to drink two gallons of wine per day. Prior to his time athletes were said xrophaga Practice (From Xros, "dry"), a diet of dry food such as dried figs, cheese and bread. Pythagoras (either the philosopher or a gymnastics Master of the same name) was to eat the first, direct athlete meat.
Trainer later set some standard diet rules: be an Olympic champion, "you have to eat according to regulations, and desserts () you must not drink cold water, nor can you drink wine whenever you want. "It seems that this diet mainly based on meat, for Galen (ca. 180 AD) accused athletes of his time "eating more meat and blood themselved. Pausanias refers on a "meat-diet."
Notes
^ ^ The term comes from Sir Colin Renfrew's The Emergence of Civilization: The Cyclades and the Aegean in the third millennium BC, 1972, p.280.
^ Flacelire, p.205.
^ At the time of Homer and the early tragedies, the term refers to the first meal of the Day, which was not necessarily economical: in Iliad 24:124, Achilles' companion slaughter a sheep for breakfast.
^ Abc Flacelire, p.206.
^ Alexis fgt.214 Kock = Athenaeus 47e.
^ Dalby, p.5.
^ Dalby, p.15.
^ Politics 1323a4.
^ Dalby, pp.1314.
^ Abcd Flacelire, p.209.
^ From Sparkes, p.132.
^ Aristophanes Knights 41 316; Pollux 6.93.
^ From Flacelire, p.212.
^ Flacelire, p.213.
^ From Flacelire, p.215.
^ Dalby, pp.9091.
^ From Migeotte, p.62.
^ Galen, on the properties of food 1.10, Dalby p. 91.
^ Sparkes, p.127.
^ Sparkes, p.128.
^ Flacelire, P.207.
^ Aristophanes, Frogs 858 and wasps 238th
^ Dalby, p.91.
^ Peace 449th
^ Dalby, p.22.
^ Scholia to Homer, Iliad '11, 630
^ See Kimberly-Hatch.
^ The frogs 6263rd
^ Dalby, p.89.
^ Dalby, p.23.
^ Dalby, p. 90; Flint-Hamilton, p.75.
^ Flacelire, P.208.
^ Peace 11,271,129th Peace. trans. Eugene O'Neill, Jr. 1938th accessed 23rd May 2006.
^ Demosthenes, 15 against Androtion
^ Peace 374th
^ Sparkes, 123.
^ Hesiod. 58 893 Works and Days, trans. Hugh G. Evelyn-White 1914th accessed 23rd May 2006
^ Life of Lycurgus 12:12.
^ Apud Athenaeus 138d, trans. cited Dalby, p. 126.
^ Life of Lycurgus 12:03 Dichaearchus and Wehrli fgt.72.
^ Various history 14.7.
^ Dalby, p.67.
^ Athenaeus, Epitome 58b.
^ Dalby, p.65.
^ Athenaeus 151b.
^ Galen, 3.15 on the nature of foods.
^ Dalby, p.66.
^ Athenaeus 325F.
^ Athenaeus 40f41a comment Odyssey 17.208.
^ Athenaeus 41a comment Iliad 2.753.
^ Pindar, fgt.198 B4.
^ Smatds, Athenaeus 42a.
^ Barystathmoteros, Athenaeus 42c.
^ Kouphos, Athenaeus 42c.
^ Kataxros, Athenaeus 43a.
^ Oxys, Theopompos fgt.229 M. I316 = Athenaeus 43b.
^ Trakuteros, Athenaeus 43b.
^ Oinds, Athenaeus 42c.
^ Antiphanes fgt.179 Kock = Athenaeus 43b.
^ Athenaeus 44th
^ Apud Plutarch, Life of Lycurgus, 9:78.
^ Athenaeus 28d.
^ First mentioned in Dioscorides, Materia Medica, 5.34; Dalby, p.150.
^ Different story 12:31.
^ Athenaeus 31d.
^ Eg Menander, Samia 394.
^ Different history, 13.06.
^ Different history, 2:38.
^ Dalby, p.889.
^ Iliad 15:638641.
^ Odyssey 10:234.
^ Homeric Hymn to Demeter 208th
04:23 ^ characters.
^ Peace 712th
^ Wilkins, "Introduction: Part II" in Wilkins, Harvey and Dobson, S.3.
^ Apud Athenaeus 8c.
^ For a comparison of the Persian and Greek cuisine, see Briant, pp.297306.
^ Herodotus 1:133.
^ Apud Athenaeus 539b.
^ Description of Greece 15:3,22.
^ Ctesias fgt.96 M = Athenaeus 67a.
^ Plutarch, Life of Lycurgus trans 12:13. John Dryden. Retrieved 26th May 2006.
^ Stratagems, 4:3,32.
^ Stratagems 4:82.
^ Different story 22:24.
^ Gorgias 518b.
^ EuphRO Comicus fgt.11 Kock = Athenaeus 7d.
^ Suidas sv.
^ Dodds, pp.1545.
^ Aristophanes, Frogs 1032nd Trans Matthew Dillon retrieved, 2 June 2006.
^ Flint-Hamilton, pp.379380.
^ Moralia 12:68.
^ On Abstinence 4.62.
^ Different story (11:3).
^ Athenaeus 412F.
^ Athenaeus 205th
^ Diogenes Laertius 08.12.
^ Epictetus, Discourses, 15:25 clock trans. WE Sweet.
^ Writing in Medicine 9, trans. SG Miller.
^ Pausanias 6:7.10.
See also
Greek Cuisine
References
Briant, P. Histoire de l'Empire Perse de Cyrus Alexandre. Paris: Fayard, 1996. A history of the Persian Empire: ISBN 2-213-59667-0, in English translated from Cyrus to Alexander. Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2002 ISBN 1-57506-031-0
Dalby, A. Siren feasts: A History of Food and Gastronomy in Greece. London: Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0-415-15657-2
Dodds, ER "The Greek Shamans and the origins of Puritanism," the Greek and the Irrational (Sather Classical Lectures). Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962 (1st edition 1959).
Flacelire R. La Vie en quotidienne au temps de Grce Pricls. Paris: Hachette, 1988 (. 1st edn 1959) ISBN 2-01-005966-2, translated in English as everyday culture in Greece at the time of Pericles. London: Phoenix Press, 2002 ISBN 1-84212-507-9
Flint-Hamilton, KB "Pulses in ancient Greece and Rome: Food, medicine or poison, "Hesperia, Vol.68, No.3 (Jul.ep., 1999), p. 371,385th
(French) Migeotte, L., L'conomie the CITS grecques. Paris: Ellipses, 2002 ISBN 2-7298-0849-3
Sparkes, BA "The Greek Kitchen," The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol.82, 1962 (1962), S. 121,137th
Wilkins, J. Harvey, D. and Dobson, M. Food in antiquity. Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 1995. ISBN 0-85989-418-5
Further Reading
(French) Amouretti, M.-Cl. Le Pain et l'huile dans la Grce antiquity. Au Moulin de l'araire. Paris: Belles Lettres, 1989.
(French) Delatte, A. Le Cycon, rituel breuvage leusis of Mystre d'. Paris: Belles Lettres, 1955.
Detienne, M. and Vernant, J.-P. (Trans, Wissing, P.). The kitchen of the victim the Greeks. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1989 (1st edition 1979.) ISBN 0-226-14353-8
External Links
(French) "Vgtarisme, au commencement date" (French language article about the origin of vegetarianism)
A taste of the Ancient World (University of Michigan)
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